Reflections from Latin America on the Science of Learning

IBRO/IBE-UNESCO is a program dedicated to the informed communication of the latest knowledge and ideas emerging from the Sciences of learning (SoL). I was fortunate to be selected as a fellow and to write in my native language, Spanish, a series of briefs on how the evidence we have can be used to rethink the curriculum for the future[i].

In the science of learning, we have much to share, but we also still have much to learn. Each person is unique, yet school curricula tend to homogenize. Teachers play a fundamental role in personalizing education, but we rarely listen to them. Each person learns—and teaches—according to their context, but this is generally not considered in research. Even within the science of learning, we perpetuate global economic and political inequities. In this text, I reflect on these issues.

We Learn with Our Brains

The science of learning has a noble objective: to generate and communicate evidence about how learning and teaching function from a cognitive and neurodevelopmental perspective. This discipline, with a broader and more situated approach than its close counterpart, Educational Neuroscience, increasingly seeks to support and facilitate the application of its findings. Ultimately, the idea is to make the brain as “comfortable” as possible when learning and, why not, teaching[ii].

When we learn, and when we teach, we do so with our brains. Our brain is the organ responsible for our thinking, understanding, communication, emotions, and sensations—and also for when we are unable to do so. The experiences, big or small, we have throughout life produce physical changes in the brain. The nervous system possesses a fascinating property: it is modified by experiences. In fact, the foundation of learning is that experiences change the brain. Which experiences? That depends on how relevant they are to us, whether consciously or unconsciously, intentionally or not—and this does not necessarily depend on whether the experience was fun, dull, or frightening. When an experience is relevant enough, it triggers various molecular changes at the neural level, potentially leading to the storage of that information in our minds—a process we call learning, rooted in the remarkable property of brain change: plasticity[iii].

We Are Not Just Brains on Legs!

Saying we learn because our brains are plastic and can change, and that these neural modifications allow us to apply (or not) acquired knowledge, does not mean that the science of learning promotes the idea that people are merely “brains on legs.” On the contrary[iv], even the perception of a stimulus, its processing, and the resulting experience are context-dependent—shaped by what happens around us. It depends on the individual and her culture.

Our brain resides within a body that interacts with its environment. We are immersed in families, neighborhoods, and cultures. At every moment, these dimensions interact with each person’s genetics, triggering (or not) plastic changes in the brain, and, with them, changes in the person’s behaviors, memories, emotions, or reasoning. From this perspective, learning does not only occur in schools. We learn—and unlearn—constantly: through our experiences, what we encounter, and even what disappoints us. Through what we see, touch, smell; through what we feel, experience, and are moved by.

Over time, our brains have been shaped by our life experiences and the contexts in which they occurred. The result? Each person is unique. Everyone interprets, perceives, feels, and acts based on their unique perspective and individual strengths and weaknesses. Teachers are well aware of these differences, as their trained eyes identify them in classrooms seemingly designed to homogenize.

From the perspective of the science of learning, educators are a crucial element because they can adapt homogenizing activities and curricula to embrace each child’s particularities, facilitating their individual learning. Just as the science of learning serves as one tool, among others, for teachers, researchers in this field should also learn from educators.

Stepping Down from the Pedestal

Although many advocate for genuine interaction between researchers and educators, the most common metaphor in the science of learning is that of a bridge[v]: we aim to establish a bridge between our discipline and education. But for a bridge to be functional, its two ends must usually rest on two shores of roughly the same height. Unfortunately, educators and scientists are not often viewed as equals (and, in many cases, we don’t even see ourselves this way either).

I consider this perceived imbalance as one of the main challenges. For a real and functional bridge to exist and for meaningful cocreation to occur, it is essential that researchers and teachers regard each other as equally important in the interaction. Researchers know how to answer questions and study developmental changes. Teachers, on the other hand, experience development firsthand—they “see” it every day—and know which questions are worth answering.

The Homogenization of the Global South

Similar perceived (and self-perceived) disparity also exists in research, perpetuating economic inequalities, and the concept of a Global South emerges[vi],suggesting that a person from Argentina, Kenya, and Singapore is more similar to one another than, for example, an American to a Canadian, or a French person to a Belgian.

In Latin America, at least, we often take knowledge generated in central countries as “gospel truth.” Although these countries have far more resources and their techniques, analyses, and studies are generally appropriate, the conclusions are not always applicable to our realities. Because while cognitive functioning and the physiological mechanisms of learning may be the same for Europeans, Americans, and Latin Americans, the context in which these cognitions develop is vastly different. Latin America, moreover, is vast and diverse. Life experiences vary greatly from one part of South America to another, as does the impact of vulnerability in rural versus urban settings (in relation to opportunities for cognitive stimulation and access to basic services available in each, for example)[vii].

Although Spanish is the official language in most Latin American countries (followed by Portuguese in Brazil), the way we speak varies in each region, and the use of certain terms also changes between countries or areas. This is similar to what happens with English—whether it is British, American, or Australian—but the greater diversity in this part of the ‘Global South’ is likely due to the fact that it encompasses at least 20 countries. For example, ‘ahora’ (meaning now) is a temporal term whose meaning varies by country, ranging from ‘this very moment’ to the more vague ‘in a  while’.

It is Urgent to Generate Latin American Evidence

The way time is used is an interesting example of why simply ‘importing’ knowledge is not enough if we want to improve aspects of education. For instance, in Argentina and Uruguay, secondary schools start at roughly the same time as in central countries. However, people near the Río de la Plata region are particularly nocturnal—they go to bed much later than in other parts of the world, with dinners often starting after 9 PM and people sleeping past midnight. Especially during adolescence, a “peak period”[viii] for nocturnity. As a result, adolescents in this region sleep very little. Too little[ix], This is particularly relevant because the quality and quantity of sleep affect cognitive and academic performance, emotional well-being, and health, and the effects of chronic sleep deprivation can be observed in the short, medium, and long term[x].

Respecting the biological clock of adolescents could lead to significant improvements in their education. For example, in a study conducted at a large school in Buenos Aires, we found that morning attendance among more nocturnal adolescents resulted in a significant decline in their performance across all subjects, and particularly in mathematics[xi], and even impacted their likelihood of repeating the school year[xii]. Conversely, those nocturnal adolescents who attended classes in the afternoon or evening showed substantial improvements in their performance.

This is not to suggest that the educational problems in Latin America are solely due to failing to consider students’ biological clocks. In fact, studies in central countries have shown that delaying school start times by half an hour or an hour is highly beneficial for adolescents[xiii]. This is likely true in Latin America as well; the question is whether this additional sleep time is enough or if interventions here need to be different. For this, we need research conducted in Latin America by Latin Americans.

The Science of Learning Is Not the Solution, but It Can Help

Educational problems are multifaceted and include issues such as economic factors, infrastructure, teacher salaries, curriculum updates, distance and accessibility to educational institutions, teacher training, and comprehensive educational planning, among others. In such an adverse context, it is all the more essential to consider what is happening with the cognition of children and adolescents during their education and strive for better educational outcomes while accounting for the real, everyday sociocultural context of these students.

It is crucial to communicate in our own languages, to devise solutions tailored to our specific challenges, and to break away from the homogenization of Latin America and the Global South. We deserve it. In this regard, the science of learning has its own contributions to make toward building a more just world.

[i] Goldin, A.P. (2024). Repensar la currícula del futuro. Hacia una alimentación responsable. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/repensar-la-curricula-del-futuro-hacia-una-alimentacion-responsable/

Goldin, A.P. (2025). Repensar la currícula del futuro. Minimizar la información para maximizar los aprendizajes. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/repensar-la-curricula-del-futuro-minimizar-la-informacion-para-maximizar-los-aprendizajes/

Goldin, A.P. (2025). Repensar la currícula del futuro. Nuestro cerebro está listo para aprender matemáticas. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/repensar-la-curricula-del-futuro-nuestro-cerebro-esta-listo-para-aprender-matematicas/

Goldin, A.P. (2025). Repensar la currícula del futuro. Enseñar a entender lo que se lee. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/repensar-la-curricula-del-futuro-ensenar-a-entender-lo-que-se-lee/

Goldin, A.P. (2025). Repensar la currícula del futuro. La educación en la era de las pantallas, redes sociales e inteligencias generativas. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/repensar-la-curricula-del-futuro-la-educacion-en-la-era-de-las-pantallas-redes-sociales-e-inteligencias-generativas/

[ii]    Goldin, A. (2022). Neurociencia en la escuela: Guía amigable (sin bla bla) para entender cómo funciona el cerebro durante el aprendizaje. Siglo XXI Editores.

[iii]   – Cunnington, R. (2019). Neuroplasticity: How the brain changes with learning. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/neuroplasticity-how-the-brain-changes-with-learning/
– Hermida, J. (2024). Neuroplasticity beyond the first years of life. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/neuroplasticity-beyond-the-first-years-of-life/
– Lent, R. (2020). Neuroplasticity, for better and for worse. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/neuroplasticity-for-better-and-for-worse/
– Maiche, A. (2020). Math, SES, and democracy: Why are they so related? IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/math-ses-and-democracy-why-are-they-so-related/

[iv]   – Bueno, D. (2021). Science and humanities during infancy and adolescence. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/science-and-humanities-during-infancy-and-adolescence/
– Hermida, J. (2024). Effects of intervention programs on neural outcome measures in children from low-socioeconomic-status homes. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/effects-of-intervention-programs-on-neural-outcome-measures-in-children-from-low-socioeconomic-status-homes/
– Peña Garay, M. (2024). Affective Touch And Preschool Learning. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/affective-touch-and-preschool-learning/

[v]    Bruer, J. T. (1997). Education and the brain: A bridge too far. Educational researcher, 26(8), 4-16.

[vi]   Haug, S., Braveboy-Wagner, J., & Maihold, G. (2021). The ‘Global South’in the study of world politics: Examining a meta category. Third World Quarterly, 42(9), 1923-1944.

[vii]  – Hermida, M. J., Shalom, D. E., Segretin, M. S., Goldin, A. P., Abril, M. C., Lipina, S. J., & Sigman, M. (2019). Risks for child cognitive development in rural contexts. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 2735.
– Lipina, S. (2024). Fenómenos fisiológicos “invisibles” por privaciones socioeconómicas como desafíos para el diseño de políticas. IBRO/IBE-UNESCO Science of Learning Briefings. https://solportal.ibe-unesco.org/articles/fenomenos-fisiologicos-invisibles-por-privaciones-socioeconomicas-como-desafios-para-el-diseno-de-politicas/

[viii] Roenneberg T., Kuehnle T., Pramstaller P. P., Ricken J., Havel M., Guth A., Merrow M. (2004). A marker for the end of adolescence. Current Biology, 14(24), R1038–R1039

[ix]   Rodríguez Ferrante, G., Goldin, A. P., & Leone, M. J. (2022). The perfect hurricane in Latin America: school start time, chronotype, sleep, and academic performance during adolescence. In Cognitive Sciences and Education in Non-WEIRD Populations: A Latin American Perspective (pp. 207-226). Cham: Springer International Publishing.

[x]    Dunster GP, Crowley SJ, Carskadon MA, de la Iglesia HO. What time should middle and high school students start school? J Biol Rhythms 34(6):576-578, 2019.

[xi]   Goldin, A. P., Sigman, M., Braier, G., Golombek, D. A., & Leone, M. J. (2020). Interplay of chronotype and school timing predicts school performance. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(4), 387-396.

[xii]  Rodríguez Ferrante, G., Goldin, A. P., Sigman, M., & Leone, M. J. (2023). A better alignment between chronotype and school timing is associated with lower grade retention in adolescents. npj Science of Learning, 8(1), 21.

[xiii] e.g. Dunster, G. P., de la Iglesia, L., Ben-Hamo, M., Nave, C., Fleischer, J. G., Panda, S., & de la Iglesia, H. O. (2018). Sleepmore in Seattle: Later school start times are associated with more sleep and better performance in high school students. Science advances, 4(12), eaau6200.

References

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